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"Myths And Their Transformations," |
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Mayan And Aztec Creation Myths - Regina Parga, Lathrop Intermediate |
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Introduction I am a seventh grade English Language Development/Language Arts teacher at Lathrop Intermediate School in Santa Ana. The seventh grade students I teach are at least two years below grade level. This means that I must choose materials which are at about the fifth grade reading level and still meet the seventh grade curriculum guidelines. One of the district's goals is to have teachers create and implement cross-curricular units. Since part of the seventh grade state standard curriculum in Social Studies is the study of ancient civilizations, I feel that creating a unit about Mesoamerican mythology would enrich the state curriculum for Social Science while addressing my students' English language development needs. Specifically, I would like to focus on Mayan and Aztec creation myths. When I began doing the research for this project, I believed I would focus on all Central American creation myths. However, I very quickly realized this would be a tremendous task. When I first considered creation myths, I was thinking very simply. However, that in itself is an oxymoron. Nothing about creation is simple. Nevertheless, I was thinking in terms of the creation of the world as a whole and not the world with individual creations in it. I realize now that there is much more to consider under the heading of creation myths, such as creation of the sun and moon, creation of people, animals, and corn, etc. This alone was a good lesson for myself, and one I will definitely pass on to my students when using this unit. The Mayan myths that I have chosen to focus on all originate from the Popol Vuh as translated by Dennis Tedlock. Many of the other resources I have used also refer back to this book as the definitive account of Mayan history and mythology. Though I would not use this book as my entire core literature, I would use excerpts from the Popol Vuh as supplemental material. The creation of the world can be broken down into six parts: (1) The Initial Creation (2) The Creation of the Animals (3) The Human Made of Earth and Mud (4) The Humans Carved of Wood (5) The Creation of Humanity and (6) The Creation of the Sun and Moon (Markman 105, 108-110, 114, 118). There have been many variations of these stories written. Which variation you choose to use will depend on which grade level you teach. For the Aztecs, I have decided to use the book, The Flayed God: The Mesoamerican Mythological Tradition by Roberta H. Markman and Peter T. Markman, as my primary source. I chose this book because it has the primary creation myths for the Aztecs as well as the Maya and Mixtec. It will also serve as a great resource book for further study of Maya and Aztec mythology. Goals and Objectives The overall goal of this unit is for students to gain a better understanding about the Maya and Aztec civilizations, their cultural beliefs, religion, values, and their contributions to our society today. This unit will also be reinforcing everything the students are learning about the Maya and Aztec societies within their Social Science classroom. I have broken down this larger goal into more specific objectives:
Strategies To begin this unit a brief background history of both the Maya and Aztec civilizations should be given. Since most areas of history are covered in Social Science class, I would give a brief overview of the dates and places and focus on the history of the codices and their value to modern day society. A codex was a sort of book where the Maya and Aztec would keep their historical records, sacred rites, and other things of importance. The writing for these codices was done in hieroglyphs. Another very important strategy for this unit will be to keep some kind of vocabulary log. Many of the words in this unit will be unfamiliar to both teachers and students and so this will be quite helpful. This will provide students with the opportunity to distinguish the difference between myth, legend, and folk tale. It will also provide a great opportunity for a few phonics lessons. While we are reading the different myths, students will keep a reflection log/ journal in which to write their responses to both the literature and assigned topics. The purpose of this log will be: (1) For students to formulate their own ideas about the creation of all things. It is here where students will learn, as I did, that there are individual and distinct natural creations surrounding us. Students will also discriminate between natural and man-made creations. (2) Students will analyze and reflect upon the literature. By comparing and contrasting different works of literature, students will discover what values, religious, and cultural beliefs the Mayan and Aztecs thought to be important. Since sixth grade students study Greek mythology and history as a part of their curriculum, as a seventh grade teacher it would be advantageous to refer back to this time period. Students will be able to use their prior knowledge of Greek history and mythology and correlate it to their studies of the Mayan and Aztec civilizations. I would also like students to be able to compare and contrast these beliefs/myths about creation to our modern day beliefs about creation&endash;both scientific and religious. Writing will be used in many ways to guide the students through this unit. I want students to understand why writing--documenting your culture's history and beliefs&emdash;is so invaluable to our society as a whole. I want students to understand the power of the written word but also to question its truth. One way students will learn these lessons is by practicing oral tradition. In this way students will actually experience how beliefs passed down orally to each generation transform with time. By doing this first, students will immediately see the effect of what happens when a society does not document its history. Next, students will write summaries of a myth read to them. In this way students will understand how a myth can still be affected when society chooses to "rewrite history." Because we will have read and analyzed several stories of how the world and humans came to be, I would like students to create a myth which explains how something else came to be. I will give students the example of the Aztec myth about the sun and the moon, then students will be required to write their own myths explaining how a natural creation of the world was created. The purpose of this assignment is so students will become more proficient in: (1) Creating an organized and sequential text (2) Developing ideas into a clear, coherent, and focused essay (3) Going through the creative writing process: brainstorming, prewriting, rough draft, revision, editing, and publishing. Photographs and other works of art will be used to enrich the curriculum and students' learning. Specifically, I will use pictures of Mesoamerican sculptures and pyramids. Fortunately, there is also a nearby museum, Bower's Museum, in Santa Ana that has wonderful Mesoamerican artifacts. I would suggest contacting a local museum and asking what kind of resources they could provide for you. Ideally, I would also like to include a few works of art by Diego Rivera, the muralist. This is also an excellent time to discuss natural versus man-made creations. Rivera has done an excellent job of incorporating Mexico's past with its present. History of the Maya Maya history can be divided into three major time periods: pre-classic, classic, and post-classic. The entire life span of the Maya civilization lasted approximately 2,000 years (1000 B.C. - 1542 A.D.). During the Classic Period the Maya lived primarily in Yucatan and Guatemala with the major centers being in Palenque, Chichen Itza, Tikal, and Copan (Encarta Online Encyclopedia). Because the Maya civilization was spread across a wide region, there are a few cultural distinctions. First of all, the region where the Maya lived was quite varied. The central area was densely populated by rainforests, swamps, and mountains. In contrast, the northern area had less rainfall, sparse woods, and very few, if any, swamps. These regional differences could account for the varied architecture, pottery, and dialect. Unlike the Aztecs who spoke one language, each region of the Maya had a different dialect. For the Central and Northern region the language was probably Yucatec. Other Mayan languages include Quiche, Zutuhil, and Cakchiquel, which are all very similar. The Popol Vuh, which is my basis for the Maya creation myths, is from the Quiche Maya. Due to the vast region populated by the Maya, each small village had its own political structure similar to that of an aristocracy, and then these individuals would gather to form the central government. Not one village ever dominated another and could be linked through marriages and alliances. These villages were also connected through trade. The Maya highlands and lowlands each had something of value to trade with the other. People would travel by water whenever possible and conduct most of their trade in the plazas of the major cities. Highly valued items from the highlands were jade, worked lava, volcanic ash, pottery, obsidian, and Quetzal feathers. From the lowlands, highly valued items were cacao, tobacco, vanilla, cotton textiles, tortoiseshell, iguanas, and pelts. During the Classic Era (250 A.D. - 900 A.D.) the Maya civilization thrived. One of their greatest contributions to our society today was the concept of the number zero. They also had the most developed writing system within the Mesoamerican cultures. They created their own calendar, and the priests were great astronomers. The Maya formed many tall pyramids that served as the heart of each city. One such pyramid is the Pyramid of Kukulcan in Chichen Itza. Atop most pyramids is a temple to serve and to sacrifice to the gods. Near the end of the Classic Era many of these great cities were abandoned. There are several theories about what happened, but not much proof (Encarta Online Encylopedia). Some scholars believe cities were abandoned because of a natural disaster. Others believe the soil for agriculture was no longer fertile. Still others believe the Maya could have been attacked. By 1542, the Maya civilization had been completely conquered by the Spanish. It was a long and bloody battle. The Spanish, led by Hernando Cortes, began conquering small tribes in 1519. But there were other contributing factors that led to the downfall of this great civilization. First of all, small tribes were still fighting amongst themselves. Second, the Spanish brought with them many diseases to which the Maya were not immune. Diseases, such as smallpox, measles, and influenza, swept through many Mesoamerican civilizations. Natural disasters, such as droughts and hurricanes, also weakened the tribes fighting against the Spanish. History of the Aztec The Aztecs had a much shorter life span than that of the Maya. The Aztec civilization, which is sometimes equated with the Mexica, lasted between 1000 A.D. to 1524 A.D. They were a wandering tribe until they reached the Valley of Mexico. They finally settled in central Mexico, surrounded by the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. Their major centers were in Tenochtitlan (Place of the Cactus), which was their capital and is now Mexico City, Texaco, Tlatelolco, and the great city of Teotihuacan. However, the Aztecs were not the creators, nor the first to inhabit the great city of Teotihuacan. A civilization called the Teotihuacan built the city which was later ruled by the Toltec empire. Eventually, Teotihuacan became known as the Aztec city of the gods. The Aztec empire was ruled by an emperor and had an absolute monarchy. The most famous rulers of this empire were Moctezuma I and Moctezuma II. Laws were made to define the caste system. The Aztecs had a fairly sophisticated court system for anyone who broke the law. Because each province had its own political structure within the empire, marriages and alliances were formed to create and secure the Aztec civilization. The Aztecs spoke a language called Nahuatl. Some of the words we use today derive from this ancient language: Mexico, Acapulco, avocado, hurricane, and chocolate to name just a few. The Aztecs also used hieroglyphs as a form of writing. From the Mayan civilization the Aztecs learned how to create a solar calendar. There seems to be much more information available about the Aztec society and daily life than that of the Mayan civilization. For instance, a village consisted of twenty clans, or calpollies. A calpolli was an extended family of brothers, sisters, aunts, uncles, etc. Each calpolli was governed by a true democracy, however, women still did not have the right to vote. Hmph! At about the age of thirteen, children received home schooling in what was called a Telpuchcalli. The family trade would be passed down to the children. Metal and featherwork were both highly honored crafts. The Aztecs also farmed. Because most areas were swampy, the Aztecs created chinampas, which are floating gardens. In 1519, Hernando Cortez arrived in Mexico with the intention of conquering the Aztecs. One reason the Spaniards were able to conquer the Aztecs was because of the legend or myth of Quetzalcoatl. According to the legend, the Aztecs believed that Quetzalcoatl was returning to the empire from across the water in order to take back his reign of power. Moctezuma II knew that he could not defeat the god, but he did not want to give up his reign as emperor. When Cortez came from across the sea, Moctezuma sent five high-ranking officials with a present to Cortez. Moctezuma thought this offering might satisfy Cortez, whom Moctezuma believed was the god Quetzalcoatl. Later, Moctezuma welcomed Cortez into the city of Tenochtitlan. Cortez used all of this to his advantage and easily captured Moctezuma. There are other reasons why the Spaniards were able to easily overtake the Aztecs. The Spaniards had better weapons and armor. The Spaniards brought new diseases with them that the Aztecs did not have the immune system to fight off. And some of the towns were not pleased being under Aztec rule and therefore did not resist the Spanish invasion. By 1521, the Spaniards gained complete control of the empire. Mythology and Religion I must first ask the questions: What is mythology? Should modern day religious beliefs about creation be considered as myths? If not, what is the difference?
Both the Maya and the Aztec were polytheistic societies. Today most religious societies have only one major god whom they believe to be the creator of all living things. We give offerings and make sacrifices to our gods just as the Maya and the Aztec did hundreds of years ago. The difference is that these ancient societies sacrificed animals and humans. Today the offerings we make are mostly monetary or volunteering our time and abilities to others. We make personal sacrifices that will not harm ourselves or others. Like these civilizations of the past, we have our own rituals, ceremonies, and celebrations. In comparison, some of these ceremonies, weddings and funerals for example, focus on the person, like a sort of rite of passage. However, other ceremonies have evolved in order to focus on the needs of the community. In the past, the Maya and Aztec people had rituals that focused on their need for rain in order for the crops to grow so they would have food. Today we give money and food to ministries that help those in need. As our society has grown, the ways in which we meet the needs of our people have evolved. The spiritual needs of people today and people of the past have both been met through sacred lore. It was and still is religious specialists who would perform the ceremonies, know the songs, and recite the sacred lore. These priests would tell the stories&emdash;the myths. Only now they are not myths but rather religious beliefs. The purpose of these stories was and is to explain the creation of the world, creation of man, natural phenomenon, and teach societal values and morals. Here is where myth and religion coincide. For perhaps one day just as the religious beliefs of the Aztec and Maya civilizations are now considered to be myths, our own religious beliefs about the creation of the world and man may soon one day be considered part of our mythology. Genesis According to the Bible, earth was created in six days&emdash;the seventh day was set aside as a day of rest and worship. When God spoke things came to be&emdash;light, oceans, animals, etc. Last of all, God made man in His likeness to rule over the earth and animals of the sea, sky, and land. God made man from dust and breathed life into him. Then woman was formed from a rib from man's side. Thus, the first man and woman, Adam and Eve, were created. They lived in the Garden of Eden where they felt no shame and were shielded from pain and suffering, until one day the serpent tricked the woman into eating an apple from the Tree of Knowledge. Eve in turn convinced Adam to eat the apple. This was the original sin. And God cursed man and woman with pain and suffering. The Maya Quiche myth of creation is quite similar to that of the Bible. There were two gods, Gucumatz, the plumed serpent, and Hurakan, god of thunder, rain, and storms. Hurakan, the Heart of Sky, came to Gucumatz as Thunderbolt Hurricane, Newborn Thunderbolt, and Sudden Thunderbolt. After coming to an agreement, they spoke for the earth to come forth and it did. Next, they created animals to guard the land. But the animals did not speak; they only squawked and chattered. The gods were not pleased because they could not be worshiped. So they altered the task of the animals to serve, be killed, and be eaten. Next, the gods tried to create man from the mud of the earth. But the mud did not hold, walk, nor multiply, and so it was allowed to disintegrate. After that the gods called upon Xpiyacoc and Xmucane, the Grandmother of Day and Grandmother of Light, for help. And so it was suggested that manikins be made from wood. And so it was. And the manikins spoke and multiplied, but they had no memory and no soul. Thus, these manikins that became dry and crusty did not worship their creators. So again the creators destroyed their creations. A flood came to destroy the people. Those who survived the flood were attacked by the animals and became monkeys. Eventually, the gods created men and women from corn. These men and women talked, listened, worked, and worshiped the gods. But the gods were worried because the people could see and knew everything the gods could see and knew. And so the gods clouded the vision of these people. One could easily compare and contrast these two stories about creation. One reason there are so many similarities may be because after the conquest of the Maya civilization the Spaniards sent friars and priest to convert them into civilized Christians. The original Popol Vuh, which was probably made using hieroglyphs, is thought to have been destroyed during the conquest. So, the Quiche Maya wrote another book in the sixteenth century using European script. This new book may be partly a reflection of what they learned combined with their own history, language, and myths. Most of the differences are also obvious. One important distinction is the Maya have many gods, some of which can split into several other gods. None of these gods are omniscient; rather they are going through the creative process. Like the Popol Vuh, the Aztec Legend of the Suns is a world history built on the idea of repeated creations (Bierhorst 182). The most accurate and detailed book of Aztec myths and poems is probably Friar Bernardino de Sahagun's History of the Things of New Spain . By allowing the natives to use their own paintings and language, Sahagun was able to compile a more concise anthology. And still, the Aztec myths are free of Christian influence but not without similarities. There are seven sections to the Aztec creation myth (Markman 120-130). It begins with the birth of the four gods who will create the earth: Red Tezcatlipoca (the principal god of the people), Black Tezcatlipoca (biggest and worst god, represents change), Quetzalcoatl (white god who represents balance and harmony, carries the winds), and Huitzilopochtli (god of war who had only bones no flesh). Next, Ometeotl, their father and mother, chooses Quetzalcoatl and Huitzilopochtli to create earth and man. Now, according to one story, this infuriates Black Tezcatlipoca and he vows to get his revenge. In the third section Black Tezcatlipoca turns himself into the first sun in order to rule over the land of acorn eating giants. This makes Quetzalcoatl jealous. So after 676 years, he throws Tezcatlipoca into the water and himself becomes the second sun. Meanwhile, Tezcatlipoca turns himself into a giant jaguar and devours the giants. Quetzalcoatl ruled a land of pine nut eating people for 676 years. Then, Tezcatlipoca pushed him out of the sky. Because Quetzalcoatl always had the winds with him, this caused a great hurricane that carried away all the people. Those people left on the land became monkeys and apes. The third sun was the god of the underworld and rain, Tlaloc. The people of this world were eventually destroyed by a fiery rain that was sent down by Quetzalcoatl. The fourth sun was Tlaloc's wife, Chalchiuhtlicue. The people of this world were quickly destroyed by a flood, and those who survived turned into fish. Now before the fifth sun is created, Quetzalcoatl creates man by going to the underworld and retrieving the bones of the last creation. When he is returning he stumbles and falls. He then sprinkles dust onto the bones to create the Aztec people. But because the bones broke during his fall, the people all came out to be different shapes and sizes. Finally, the fifth sun is created, but this is a legend in itself. Basically, two minor gods are chosen to be the sun and the moon. The first god, Tecuciztecatl, is quite confident and volunteers. The second god, Nanahuatzin, humble and diseased, is chosen. After a few days of preparation the gods are asked to jump into a fiery blaze. Four times Tecuciztecatl runs towards the blaze and falters. Next, Nanahuatzin is asked to jump and does so immediately. Seeing this, Tecuciztecatl finally jumps into the flames. Nanahuatzin, rewarded for his courage, becomes the sun, Tonatiuh. And Tecuciztecatl becomes the moon. Yin and Yang Theory The Chinese developed the theory of yin and yang by observing nature's patterns and changes. The ancient Chinese theory is this: All natural phenomena consists of two opposite but complementary aspects. The yin represents the darker side of things such as cold, death, and destruction. The yang represents the lighter side such as harmony and creation. The extreme of one condition will eventually bring about the opposite condition. For example, extreme heat will eventually bring about a feeling of coldness. Referring back to the creation myths, from Chaos comes order and stillness brings movement. According to Suwen, "Yin and yang are the law of Heaven and Earth, the outline of everything, the parents of change, the origin of birth and destruction…" (Cheng). But to start at the beginning, there was only stillness and darkness. From this came the movement and voice of the gods to create light. Next came heaven and earth, then sky and sea. Last of all came man and from him came woman. And all of these things have a life cycle. The sun rises in the east and sets in the west. From day comes night and life brings death. In all creation myths destruction is close at hand. Both the Maya and the Aztec had several creations and destructions. And if one were to read the Bible even further, you would come upon the flood and the sky's fiery rain which both led to a sort of re-creation. The lesson for students to learn here is that every action will bring about a reward or a consequence. The theory of yin and yang is one that is practiced by all of us each and every day. Natural vs. Man-Made Creations Let me begin by stating that all these creation myths are man-made. Now whether the creation of the world itself was "natural" or a product of God's desire is something to be discussed. Either way, the creation of the world is certainly not man's doing. For now, let us assume that creations by God are "natural." But whether by God, man, or nature, all things go through a creative process. During the creation of the earth and man, it seems that there was a very precise process that can be seen within each myth. First, there is thought, then speech, next the creation of the elements that occupy the earth, and finally man. The myths themselves have also gone through a creative process, only this one is by man. First there was oral tradition, then hieroglyphs, next written stories. And the stories themselves have and continue to go through the creative writing process. Finally there is art. Art is another product of man's ability to create. One way we are able to familiarize ourselves with the Mesoamericans is through their artistic creations. The hieroglyphs they used are art. The sculptures of their deities and the jewelry they made are art. Today, we are able to see the influence these cultures had through modern art. Diego Rivera is an excellent example of how contemporary artists are able to create pictures using images of the past. The Aztec World, The Great City of Tenochtitlan, and Detroit Industry are just a few of the murals Diego Rivera painted which are heavily influenced by the Aztec civilization. The lesson here is twofold. First, art itself is a creative process. Second, the Aztec and Maya civilizations have had a lasting effect on our society today that can be seen in modern art. Lesson Plans Lesson 1: Introduction to Mythology Discuss the differences between a myth, legend, and folk tale. Give an example for each. I will have students write these terms and their definitions in a vocabulary log. Review Greek gods and goddesses. Create a class chart in order to refer and to compare Aztec and Mayan gods. You may even want to read the Greek creation myth with students. Lesson 2: Historical Background Most of the geography and history should be done in Social Science, however you may want to have a map available for the students as a reference. The most important items to discuss here are the codices. Students should know why the codices were written then later destroyed and their importance to us now. It would obviously be extremely useful to have a facsimile of the codices available in the classroom for the students to look through. One such facsimile is The Codex Borgia: A Full-Color Restoration of the Ancient Mexican Manuscript, available through Dover publications. This would also be an appropriate time to discuss oral tradition. The students should understand the creative process by which the myths were formed and probably transformed. *Activity: Read aloud a myth to students (preferably the Greek creation myth). Then have students break up into small groups and rewrite the myth. Afterwards have each group read their version of the same story. Students will be able to hear how each story changes with each new telling. During this time the importance of the creative writing process should be stressed. Before writing, each group had to discuss what they heard and review the main points. Next, they had to put the events in a sequential order. Once they began writing, things like word choice and spelling become very important. Finally, the story must be edited and revisions made. Lesson 3: Mayan Poetry Read together from the Popol Vuh. I would stop after the second poem. The language and word choices within this section should be discussed along with the poems. It is clear that this section was written after the Spanish Conquest and students should be aware of this. *Activity: This would be an excellent time to teach students a lesson on synonyms and how to use a thesaurus. Both of the poems use several different phrases and words to describe very similar things. The first poem names all of the gods who helped to create the human race. The second poem gives the many different names of the Popol Vuh. After the lesson students can write a poem about a person or topic of their choice using synonyms. Key words: word, citadel, nation, Christendom, hidden identity, synonym Lesson 4: Maya Creation Myth Using a simpler text, read the Maya creation myth together. As a class, create a story map. Next, discuss the process the gods went through in order to create the human race. Questions for discussion:
*Activity: The reason the animals were destroyed was because they were not able to speak / worship the gods. Instead, the animals barked, howled, chirped, etc. Have students make a list of other words for "said." You may even want to keep a class list and have students add to it throughout the year. (A great book for this activity that also goes with the animal sounds theme is The Great Kapok Tree.) Writing Prompt: In this myth the animals turn against the wood people because of the way they were treated. Pretend your _____________ suddenly comes to life. What do you think it would say to you about the way you have treated it? Create a story.\ Lesson 5: Aztec Creation Myth Using a simple text, read the Aztec creation myth together. As a class, create a story map. Next, discuss the process the gods went through in order to create the human race. Questions for discussion:
*Activity: Have students create a Venn Diagram comparing and contrasting the beliefs of the Maya and Aztec civilizations. Writing Assignment: Using the Venn Diagram, teach students how to write a compare / contrast essay. Lesson 6: Mythology and Religion At this time I would lead the class in a discussion about the concept of mythology as religious beliefs. First, I would give students background information about the religions of the Aztec and Maya. Next, I would read an excerpt from Genesis in the Bible. Questions for discussion:
*Activity: Fact versus Belief (Opinion). First, discuss the difference between religious facts and beliefs. Next, have students list five facts and five opinions for the Maya, Aztec, and Christian religions. Lesson 7: Create your own creation myth Review the creative writing process with students. Have students write a myth about the creation of a creature. Next, have students create a storyboard for their myth (like a type of codex). When they are complete, you may want to have students share their stories using the storyboard (codex) as a guide. Lesson 8: Influence of Aztec and Maya civilizations in today's society Show and discuss works of art with Aztec and Maya influence. In particular, I would use Diego Rivera's paintings and murals. There are some excellent web sites which show some of his works. Next, I would have students make a collage using pictures from magazines that could be related to the Maya and Aztec civilizations. Or you could have students create their own picture using Maya and Aztec images. Lesson 9: Antonyms and Analogies This would also be an excellent time to teach students antonyms, along with the yin and yang theory. Some examples are creation: destruction, flood: fire, sky: earth, and peace: war. Some examples of analogies are Aztec: Maya as Quetzalcoatl: Itzamna, or Chac: Tlaloc as Yum Caax: Cineteotl. Glossary This glossary of terms is taken from the book, Mythologies of the World: A Concise Encyclopedia, edited by Max S. Shapiro and Rhoda A. Hendricks. Chac (chahk), Maya god of rain. Rain was important for growing crops. Chicomecoatl (chee-koh-may-kaw-ah't'l), Aztec goddess of grain and agriculture. Cinteotl (seen-tay-oh't'l), Aztec god of grain. He was sometimes represented as a goddess. Coatlicue (koh-ah'-tleek), Aztec goddess of the earth. Gucumatz (goo-koo-mahts'), Maya sky god. Like Quetzalcoatl, Gucumatz was represented as a feathered serpent. He was also the god of agriculture. Hunab-ku (hoo'-nahb-koo), Supreme god of the Maya. He was sometimes called Kinebahan. Hurakan (hoo-rah-kahn'), Maya god of wind, thunder, and storms. He brought fire to mankind. Itzamna (eet'-sahm-nah), Maya god. Itzamna was the son of Hunab-ku. He was also the creator of both gods and men. He was sometimes called Kabul or Zamna. Ometeotl (oh-may-tay-oh't'l), Aztec creator of the universe. Also known as Ometeuctli (oh-may-tay-ook'-tlee). He was a dual god and goddess who represented opposite forces. Also referred to as the couple Tonacatecuhtli and Tonacacihuatl. Popol Vuh (poh-pohl' voo), Maya "Council Book" or "Book of Advice" which was written in the sixteenth century after the Spanish conquest. It is our primary source of knowledge for the mythology of the Maya culture. Quetzalcoatl (ket-sahl-kaw-ah´t'l), Aztec deity also known as the feathered or plumed serpent. God of wind, life, fertility, wisdom and practical knowledge. The Aztecs believed Hernan Cortes was Quetzalcoatl and welcomed him. Cortes used his mistaken identity to help Spain conquer the Aztecs. Teotihuacan (tay-oh-tee-wah-kahn'), Aztec "City of the Gods." Place in Mexico where the Pyramid of the Moon and the Pyramid of the Sun are located, as well as the Temple of Quetzalcoatl. Tezcatlipoca (tes-kaht-li-poh'-kah), Aztec sun god. Ruler of the sun of the first universe. Tlaloc (tlah-lohk'), Aztec god of rain, thunder, and mountains. Similar to the Maya god, Chac. Ruler of the sun of the third universe which was consumed by fire. Xipe (hee'-pay) or Xipe Totec (toh-tek), Aztec god of spring and vegetation. Known as the flayed god. Yum Caax (yoom kah' -ahks), Mayan god of corn and agriculture. Teacher Bibliography Bahn, Paul G., trans. The Aztecs: Rise and Fall of an Empire. New York: Harry N. Abrams Inc. 1992. Baudez, Claude and Sydney Picasso. Lost Cities of the Maya. New York: Harry N. Abrams Inc. 1992. Great pictures and photos. Excellent historical reference. Bierhorst, John. The Mythology of Mexico and Central America. New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc.1990. Freund, Philip. Myths of Creation. Washington Square Press, 1965. A study of myths, religious beliefs, and scientific theories regarding creation. Markman, Robert H. and Peter T. The Flayed God: The Mesoamerican Mythological Tradition. New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 1992. Gives historical background information regarding the different cultures and their mythology. Shapiro, Max S. and Rhoda A. Hendricks, eds. Mythologies of the World: A Concise Encyclopedia . New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1979. Has a complete glossary and pronunciation for the many gods and goddesses from around the world. Tedlock, Dennis, trans. Popol Vuh&endash;The Mayan Book of the Dawn of Life. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985. Translated from the Maya Quiche "A Touchstone Book." Contains their beliefs and mythology. Thompson, J. Eric S. Maya History and Religion. Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1970. Very technical and laborious reading, but has much information. Annotated Student Bibliography Beals, Carleton. Stories Told By the Aztecs. New York: Abelard-Schuman, 1970. Has all the major myths and not too difficult for intermediate students. Cheng, Wyith R. The Yin and Yang and Five Element Theory. Wyith Inc., 1996-98. <http://www.wyith.com/topics/tcm/basics>. Encarta Online Encyclopedia. "Maya." 1999. <http://encarta.msn.com/>. Gerson, Mary-Joan. People of Corn. Italy: Little Brown and Company, 1995. Excellent rendition of the Maya creation myth with textiles on most pages. Grattan, L. James. Diego Rivera. 1999. <http://www.spectrumvoice.com/art/artists/major/r/rivera.htm>. Kondeatis, Christos and Davies, Gill. The Timeline of World History. New York: Gallahad Jr. Books, 1993. Great for comparing what was going on at the same time in different parts of the world. Kramme, Dr. Michael. Mayan, Incan, and Aztec Civilizations. Mark Twain Media Inc., Publishers, 1996. Excellent resource material to use with students. Contains short readings with maps, pictures, and questions. Palacios, Argentina. The Hummingbird King. Troll Associates, 1993. Short Mayan myth about the creation of the Quetzal bird. Parke, Marilyn and Panik, Sharon. A Quetzalcoatl Tale of Chocolate. Carthage: Fearon Teacher Aids, 1994. Fairly short story with vivid illustrations and borders of glyphs on each page from Pre-Columbian codices. Rhoads, Dorothy. The Corn Grows Ripe. New York: Puffin Books, 1993. Newbery Honor Book. Short literature book recommended for children between the ages of 8-12. Explains some of the Maya customs through the planting and harvesting of the corn. Rivera, Javier. Diego Rivera Web Musuem. 1999. <http://www.diegorivera.com>. Singer, Jane and Kurt. Folk Tales of Mexico. Minneapolis: T. S. Denison & Company, Inc., 1969. The Aztec creation myth seems to be the most complete for students' abilities. Also has the Maya creation myth. Tanaka, Shelley. Lost Temple of the Aztecs. Toronto: Hyperion / Madison Press Book, 1998. Sort of storybook format with excellent photographs. Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary. Massachusetts: G. & C. Merriam-Webster Company, 1974. **The Los Angeles County Museum of Art will have an exhibit featuring Diego Rivera's Mesoamerican influenced works called "The Road to Azatlan: Art From a Mythic Homeland" in March of 2001. |
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